Trifles: Murder and Mrs. Hale

Susan Glaspell’s one act play Trifles is a clever tale which highlights the way in which women were dismissed in the early twentieth century and perhaps in some ways still today. Glaspell uses the scene of a terrible crime to engage the audience and then deliver her social message. This play is mostly about the way in which women in her day were ignored. The play takes place in a farm house in the Midwest during the present day, around 1916. Mr. Henderson, a county attorney, and Mr.Peters, a sheriff, have come to the farm to investigate the strangling murder of John Wright. One of John Wright’s neighbors named Mr. Hale discovered the body and found Mrs. Wright sitting downstairs acting in an odd manner. He has come to assist them with his testimony. Two women accompany them, the sheriff’s wife Mrs. Peters and the neighbor’s wife, Mrs. Hale. As the play unfolds, the men remain baffled by the lack of any evidence pointing directly to Ms. Wright as the killer . The case will not be entirely resolved due to an apparent lack of evidence of any motive.The two male investigators see women’s values and motivations in a disrespectful light – as mere trifles – and because of this attitude they fundamentally misunderstand the crime they are investigating and turn the two women into enemies who protect Mrs. Wright by tampering with the evidence. The men fail to see the household disarray as evidence. When entering the home, the poor maintenance in the household is apparent to all four characters in this play. The County Attorney exclaims, â€Å"Dirty towels! Not much of a housekeeper, would you say ladies? † (1114). The women defend Mrs.Wright. Mrs. Hale responds, â€Å"Those towels get dirty awful quick. Men's hands aren't always as clean as they might be† (1114). And after the men are out of earshot, Mrs. Hale is clearly identifying with Mrs. Wright when she complains: â€Å"I'd hate to have men coming into m y kitchen, snooping around and criticizing† (1114). Although all four characters recognize that the house is not well kept, but only the women immediately understand that something was terribly wrong. The men go no further with their interpretation of what the women instantly recognize as signs of discord in the home.A central piece of evidence in this play is a quilt that is being made by the suspect, Mrs. Wright, at the time of the murder. Upon inspecting Mrs. Wright’s things, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters come across an unfinished quilt. It is Mrs. Hale who notices that the last section of the quilt is different. She points out to Mrs. Peters that the stitching in most of the quilt is well-developed and carefully knitted. This is in sharp contrast to the most recent piece of quilt. This final section has misplaced stitches and the poor workmanship which would happen under a high degree of emotional distress. Mrs.Hale realizes this only moments after the county attorney c omplains about a missing piece of evidence explaining: â€Å"It's all perfectly clear except a reason for doing it. But you know juries when it comes to women. If there was some definite thing. Something to show – something to make a story about – a thing that would connect up with this strange way of doing it† (1121). Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters realize that they are, in fact, looking at the exact evidence the county attorney had in mind. Mrs. Hale quietly undoes the stitching. Another critical piece of evidence is the knot stitching in the quilt.Early in the play, the sheriff scoffs at the silliness of women discussing the type of stitching used to construct a quilt in the middle of an important murder scene, exclaiming sarcastically, â€Å"They wonder if she was going to quilt it or just knot it! † (1116). The point of view of the sheriff is clearly one in which he belittles female concerns over such a small detail when what he sees as a real concern, su ch as murder, is in question. The sheriff and county attorney ultimately fail to realize, or even consider, the critical nature of this evidence.At the end of the play, the sheriff takes a moment to tease the women a bit more about this topic. His sarcastic question about the quilting style is answered by a wicked pun from the author. Mrs. Hale explains that Mrs. Wright, instead of quilting it, was going to â€Å"knot it† ( 1121). Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters understand that this reference to a knot is in fact a direct reference to the way in which Mrs. Wright murdered her husband, by tying a knot around his neck and strangling him to death. She tied a knot in the quilt the same way she tied a knot around her husband’s neck.The irony of this pun is that this very evidence, seen as laughable by the county attorney, is actually central to the murder of Mr. Wright. Although the knot is right in front of his face, he would not be able to see the meaning of it in a million yea rs. The most obvious piece of evidence missed by the male investigators is the singing bird. As the women are collecting clothing and items to bring to Mrs. Wright at the jail, they come across a bird cage. Three questions are immediately evident. First, why is there a bird cage but no bird?Second, what happened to the door of the bird cage? Of course, this leads to the third and final important question: if the bird is missing, where is it? Within a few minutes, the women discover the fate of the bird. They find the pet hidden away with great care. It is wrapped in silk inside Mrs. Wright’s fanciest sewing box. Clearly this was a type of burial, a shrine to a beloved pet. The women make all of the central connections between the dead bird and the crime that the men are investigating. They immediately realize that the singing bird was Mrs.Wright’s only companion. Mrs. Peters notes that the hinge on one side of the door has been ripped out and not fixed as if someone br oke into the cage to kill the animal. They see clearly that the bird’s neck was broken and understand that this beloved pet was killed out of shear meanness by the overbearing; soul-crushing Mr. Wright. Mrs. Peters volunteers a story about one of her own pets that was killed by boys that she knew when she was younger. They instantly understand that Mrs. Wright murdered her husband in retaliation for this brutal act.They see that this was the motive behind this murder. The bird in this play is a reminder of the care-free, singing, younger Minnie Foster who has now become the lonely, miserable Mrs. Wright. Mrs. Hale’s recollections link the bird to Mrs. Wright. She explains to Mrs. Peters that when she was single years ago, Minnie Foster was well known in the community for being pretty, well dressed, and singing like a bird in the choir. Mrs. Hale observes, recalling Minnie Foster’s singing, that â€Å"he killed that too† (1120).The central misunderstanding in this play is the male investigator’s inability to grasp the meaning of the readily available evidence. As the title suggests, the men see women’s work and women’s concerns as mere trifles. The men comment on the poor housekeeping in the home but do not seem to understand why or how it is related to the murder they are investigating. The men fail to see why the bird cage is crucial evidence. The men investigating the crime make no effort to examine the quilting done by Mrs. Wright. The women, on the other hand, see all of these things in stark relief.They understand that the shabby condition of the home and the poor housekeeping criticized by the male investigators reflect the increasing alienation and despair of Mrs. Wright. The women instantly see the significance of the quilt. They recognize the incriminating nature of the emotional distress reflected in the shoddy last section of the quilt. They also find the crucial evidence of the case by inspecting the sewing box. The women find the murdered bird. When they do, they immediately see that the bird is the lynch pin of the case. The bird is the motive.The bird explains, both in terms of meaning and in the reality of its broken neck, what actually happened to John Wright. He murdered the bird, so she murdered him The blindness of the men to the nature of the crime and their condescension to Mrs. Wright emboldens the women at the scene to destroy evidence. Both Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters make it clear that they blame themselves for having been poor friends to Mrs. Wright. Perhaps Mrs. Hale puts this best when she says â€Å"I stayed away because it weren’t cheerful—and that’s why I ought to have come† (1118).They even resolve to bring Mrs. Wright her bottle of preserves as a token of their concern and understanding. Subsequently, Mrs. Hale destroys the evidence of the poor stitching on the last quilt segment. She does this because she realizes that this is ac tually incriminating evidence because it reflects Mrs. Wright’s emotional state. Following this, both Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters further tamper with the evidence by hiding the dead bird. When the men asked what happened to the bird, Mrs. Hale lies: â€Å"We think—the cat got it† (1119). Mrs. Peters could contradict Mrs.Hale. By not doing so she is also agreeing to lie and assisting Mrs. Hale in the destruction of evidence. In the final scene, both women attempt to hide the body of the bird and Mrs. Hale succeeds. They realize that the men are blind to the real motivation and nature of this crime. They are unafraid to destroy evidence which they know the men are too self-absorbed to find on their own. The play Trifles is a play about the lack of perspective men have for women’s issues. At every turn, evidence for this crime is available and plain to see.The male investigators fail to see the evidence of the murder because of their disrespect of things that are important to women. In addition, by being so dismissive and callous, they turn the two women who actually understand the crime against them. In the end, they fail to see much of the evidence. The women hide the remaining evidence easily. The women truly understand the crime and are certainly not going to assist in the prosecution of a woman who they realize has been treated so poorly. Glaspell is telling us to beware seeing other people’s work, hopes, and dreams as trifles.

Methodologies of christian social ethics

A particular group of people for centuries together practices certain principles which are approved by the group; society or community for generations Is called customs. Character: Our behavior, conduct or repeated practice of habits became a character. According to medical science it is easy to Stealing. Repeated habits lead to character. Even our character or habits form our personality.Society which we came from plays a lead role in forming character and our culture plays a role in formation of our character. 4. 06. 12 Morals: The word morals come from the Latin word â€Å"moss† which means â€Å"way of life† or habits. Ethos means customs or character. In modern world the word moral and ethics have been used interchangeable. Both the terms connotes those duties and responsibilities which persons have with reference to right and wrong conduct or ultimate purpose of life. Ethics talk about what is right and wrong, then duties and responsibilities, and then the command ment.The second point is ultimate purpose of life. Morality is the description of human behavior. Traditionally the word moral was used in descriptive sense. In today's world the word moral is used by restrictive sense. As an adjective: To describe behaviors of persons or people commonly regarded as right, good or appropriate. As a noun: To refer to the norms or principles practiced by a particular group of people regarding right or wrong conduct. In order to revive sound moral Judgment, we need to have two main things; 1 Vigorous pursuit of relevant information, (Work hard to get information) 2.More complete data to illuminate the nature of the problem Ethics: Ethics is a Praxis oriented or reflective reflection on morality in order to give sound moral Judgment. Morals is a descriptive or to describe human behavior or conduct. While ethics reflect on morality, morality describes the behavior of a person. 19. 6. 12 Mackenzie (1860 – 1935) A 19th century philosopher defines et hics as a study of what is right or good in human conduct or the science of the ideal involvement in human life Staunch Sinai says † Ethics is a normative science which is systematic knowledge†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ T is a science in so far as it depends upon the observation, classification and explanation off human conduct with reference to an ideal†. It is an ideal consist of view set by what is right or wrong. Conclusion: Ethics evaluates he voluntary action and habitual actions of persons and considers their rightness and wrongness. Ethics is a systematic study of human conduct, individual as well as cooperate. It is concerned with determining what conduct is right or wrong, good or bad, fitting and non-flitting. Christian Ethics Ethics plus Bible is known as Christian ethics.Sources of Christian ethics are 1) Bible and 2) cultural norms and traditions. Some scholars say that we can learn from other religions also. Bible: The study of ethics based on bible is known as Christi an ethics. Ethics is a critical reflection on morality basing on the word of god. To understand oral Judgment first source available for Christians is bible. Other sources for dong Christina ethics is Bible normative. Cultural Norms: Traditional moral principles say that we can learn from other traditions or other cultural norms. Our experience is also a source of Christian ethics.If Bible is not there, there is no Christian ethics. Definitions on Christian Ethics Signal Paul: According to Signal Paul â€Å"Christian ethics is a critical reflection on human conduct or the issue and the problem that we face in our society basing on definition Critical analysis of Christian ethics is based on a) data and b) teaching of he bible Adams: According to Adams â€Å"reflection on human conduct ? .. Aim to achieve clarity and consistency with respect to the ground and goal, the motives and the norms, the means and consequences of right action conceived as the response to and the working of the grace of the God. 20. 06. 2012 Hunter P Mammary: â€Å"The living reality of God as understood through Christ and Judo- Christian tradition – is the distinctive component in serious reflection on human moral conduct†. James M. Gustafson defines Christian ethics as â€Å"ethic must be Christian and is Christian in a universally applicable sense because it is in Christ that al things are created and he is the Lord of all things. This definition Justifies the first one. Ethic must be Christian because the community is called to absolute obedience to Jesus Christ as Lord.Conclusion: Christian ethics is a listing kind of discipline and it is also different from other fields of studies. Also Christian ethics help to study the social sciences. Christian means the help of other social sciences we are to see the relation of Christian ethics with other social sciences. Psychology helps us in order to understand human behavior. Social analysis is sociology which is more crit ical and racial. Social analysis helps to understand the origin and development in society. Sociology will help us to understand Biblical history and structure of the society.Sociology and history of Christianity will help us to understand issues, development context of O T and N T and changes in many Christian traditions. Theology helps us to see and analyze Church. History of Christianity helps theology. It becomes abnormal for us to look back our church tradition, when it comes to serious conflict. Study of theology helps to know how theology was originating and developing. It helps us to listen to our issues. Biblical Studies: The Most important help we get in terms of Christianity is from biblical studies. We deal with origin, purpose, occasion, date and development in biblical studies.Most importantly we do interpretation I. E. Hermeneutics. In short hermeneutic means interpreting origin and development of text. The theological background from where we came is matter while int erpreting Bible. We believe Holy Spirit is one person who interprets Bible to us. Holy Spirit manifest to us in different ways where we may have topography experience. Most times our theology will affect our Biblical Hermeneutics. 21 . 06. 12 Conclusion: To conclude the purpose of Christian ethics it is not that we discover perfect solution. Christian ethic has to do with Christian morality and values.Christian Ethics teach us about singular relationship between God and Man 22. 06. 12 MODES OF ETHICAL DISCOURSE: A. Deontological Ethics, The word demonology derives from the Greek word â€Å"Eden† means â€Å"necessary or imperative†. It is also known as traditional ethics or classical ethics. Deontological Ethics is imperative absolute and obligatory, independent of their ends and consequences. Most of the deontological will say that some of our actions are consequences or results. When important is given to means it does not bother about ends. If Bible says do not stea l we should not.Many deontological will say that this ethics concentrate on means not consequences. Different types of Deontological Ethics. 1. Rights According to Robin Gill â€Å"rights† is a more recent example of deontological ethics. He gives the example of right to live, right of the women to choose. The best known contemporary defender of deontological approach to rights is by Ronald Deerskin. He argues that rights should not be over ridden by consideration of social well-being. 2. Legalism or Absolutism Legalism is a law. This is one of the most widespread models of deontological ethics.Deontological attempts to state what kinds of acts are either require or forbidden. They claim that by the very nature of things certain kinds of acts are always obligatory. It requires a person to apply a rule or code which has already been formulated. 3. Rule Ethics Rule Ethics points to an already existing authority – Truth Reentered-. Deontological ethics are also presented as rule ethics which is considered as the answer of tradition. The answer of the ethical tradition or of rule ethics points the questionnaire to an orderly existing authority.Though Reentered talks about the rule ethics, his concern is more of an ethical tradition which implies a separate speculative world or situation ethics. 4. The Divine Command Theory The divine command theory is also known as theological voluntarism which holds that the standard of right and wrong is the will or love of God. Proponents of this view believe that right and wrong – is that commanded and forbidden by God. 5. Obedient Love. This is one of the most important types in Deontological Ethics propounded by Paul Ramsey. According to Paul Ramsey the central ethical notion on category in Christian ethics is obedient love.This is the sword of love the gospel describes as love fulfilling the law and Paul designates as faith that works through love. Ramsey defines it as â€Å"faith that works though lov e†. 6. Categorical Imperative. Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804) stressed on Categorical imperative. The most important theory of Deontological ethics is Categorical imperative of Emmanuel Kant. His book is Critic of Practical reason. In Kantian theological theory, an action is Justified by showing what it is right not by showing that the consequences of acts are good.According to Emmanuel Kant each individual is rational and is able to reason and arrived at the right decision regarding his or her own actions. Reasons according to Emmanuel Kant transcend all groups, cultures, societies and dialects and a set of rational principles which are to be obeyed by all. Emmanuel Kant tries to establish the ultimate basis for the validity of moral rules – is pure reason, not in intuition or conscience. In his view a moral principle gains universal applicability when that principle cannot be rationally rejected.So the ultimate basis of morality rests on principle of reason which all ratio nal creatures possess. 25. 6. 12 The Critique of Pure reason of Emmanuel Kant (1781) He talks about reason. Religion could be established on the basis of practical reason. About obligation. Deontological are not concerned with end results. Traditional Christians follows deontological ethics. They take moral principles without seeing consequences. They Just said don't do or do with absolute attitudes. Emmanuel Kant says do your duty though the heavens may fall.The deontological are of the view that â€Å"the end does not always Justify the means† Cant's Theory on Categorical imperatives or Three important Principles of Kant Cant's theory on Categorical imperatives includes: 1 . Autonomy (self-governs) Here we have freedom to choose. It talks about autonomous will of a person. Emmanuel Kant bases his entire moral system on the affirmation that every rational being exist as an end in himself not merely as a means, according to binding moral rules valid for everyone – for arbitrary use by these or that will happen when a person behaves according to binding moral rules valid for everyone.He considers that a person has an autonomous will. Hence the principle autonomy is never choosing except in such a way that in the same volition the maxims of your choice are also present as universal laws. This means that it should be within the principles of universal laws) Therefore a person's autonomy consists in his ability to direct himself/ herself according to these moral maxims. 2. The Goodwill What make an action right or wrong are not the consequences of the act, but rather the principle guiding the act.He spoke of the will as something that is within our conscious control as opposed to a wish that is not within our conscious control. In other words he states that the good will is not because it achieves good results. Even if it were unable to obtain the ends it would still be good in itself and have a higher worth than the superficial things gained by immo ral actions. 6. 6. 12 3. Duty and Moral Laws: Emmanuel Kant explains the relationship between goodwill and duty. A good will is one which acts for the sake of duty. Human actions have moral worth only if they are performed from duty.Actions that result from inclinations or self-interest maybe praise worthy if they happened, for whatever reason to accord with duty, but they are not moral. According to Kant the dutiful person takes the maxim of helping others to express or embody a requirement, Just as Law does. What we understand from Cant's categorical imperative is that the categorical imperatives should tell us that our axiom themselves must be laws which is universal being the characteristics of laws. It tells us to act on those principles which are laws. Therefore, Kant argues for the importance of action from duty.The only thing good without qualification is goodwill and a person acquires both good will and moral worth by acting from duty. Therefore one's duty is to act in acco rdance with objective moral values and laws and such laws are categorical. The teaching of deontological ethics is if some moral principles are laid down we are to follow it. It is the teaching of deontological ethics. All the laws amended in the Bible are to be followed by the Christina s whether we like it or not. Summary CNN: You need to critique deontological ethic. Can we apply deontological ethics of the bible all the times?Is all the Bible commandments are applicable for all in relation to Indian context? 28-6-12 Teleological ethics comes into being because some found deontological ethics not gives any freedom. Ideologists say that in all aspects teleological ethics involved. It comes into been on process to an end or goal. We do right today in order to achieve a high good in the future. An action should not be done for the sake of Jesus only. Ideologists say all circumstances will not work. It focuses on ends and goals. There is no choice but absolute obligation. We cannot l ive in the world of dos and don't. We should live on aspirations for the future.The right action which we do today will lead us to future. Our action should have goal purpose. Teleology comes from Greek word tells means â€Å"end† â€Å"purpose† or â€Å"goal†. Teleology ethics is for ends and goals so that moral decision making are to be Judged in the light of an end or goal. The ideologists look at the consequences of actions rather than to any intrinsic goodness or badness n action. In other words it is ethics of aspirations good or ends also referred to as consequential ethics. This approach is concerned with questions regarding the highest good or final goals of life toward which persons should aspire.Most prominent deontological are Jeremy Beneath, John Stuart Mill and Judger N Molten and Earaches Bausch. Different approach or Theories on Teleological Ethics 1. Quantitative utilitarianism It simply means greater happiness or number. All the philosophers wh o talk about quantitative utilitarianism are indebted to Jeremy Beneath (1784 – 1818). An action s right when there is absence of pain. If we talk about happiness it has to be with greatest number. The idea of the greater happiness of human kind as the end of morality was placed in a secular framework by Jeremy Beneath.Jeremy Beneath believes that man always sticks to his own pleasure. He agreed with Epicures that the ethical or the right is that which produces the most pleasure. Though there are similarities, Beneath however developed his theory farther than Epicures. Epicures mainly talks about one's own pleasure but Beneath along with pleasure on individual talks about the pleasure of the community. In other word, Beneath states that right action is always the promotion not simply of one's own pleasure but of the community of all persons. 2. Scatological Ethics It is either of the end or the ethics of the future.Scatological ethics means ethics of good at end. Within Chris tian tradition certain ideas about the ultimate good or the final end of history and how one is to relate to this end has been a dominant motive in several strands/ types of ethical thoughts. Models built on this theme emphasize the sovereignty of God and the expected establishment of God's righteousness in all hinges, but deviate regarding whether the sovereignty of God is future or present, individual or societal a future condition for which one must wait for a condition of righteousness within history for which one must labor. L.Other worldly model It talks about future happiness in heaven even thought if we suffer at the present world. In other words it is the behavior that the ultimate purpose of our life is in the heavenly kingdom, not in the world. Its main concern is future world of happiness. Followers of this approach believe that true life exist only in heaven, a world beyond this present life. Consequently, for them life in this world is viewed as a testing ground. It em phasis the cultivation of certain qualities of the spirit which they believe the conservative believes in this understanding of true life that will come beyond death.It explains the cultivation of certain spiritual qualities in anticipation of life beyond death. 3. 7. 12 ii Kingdom of God This model gained prominence during the early part of the nineteenth century and it is associated with the social gospel movement by author Walter Reaches Bausch. The followers of this theory believe in the proper norms and principles for how to live in the society. This model talks about the present world. It is actually talking about Christianization of social order. This model is rooted in the belief that the proper norm regarding how society should be organized and arranged by the kingdom of God concept.The followers of this model claim that an understanding of Kingdom of God provides both a version of good society and authority which enables the followers to work for grater approximation of ki ngdom within history. They understand that the Kingdom of God is nothing less than â€Å"humanity organized† accord not the will of the God. Therefore a according to the Kingdom of God model the hive task of Christians and churches is to labor for the Christianization of the social order. It regards individualistic salvation as totality inadequate for dealing with the problem of evil, which has become institutionalized in the structure of the society.Sin is seen not merely as the corruption of the individual will but of the institution. Iii) Liberation Model Liberation model which has come to existence in recent years, especially in third world has its root historically in the struggle of oppressed people to be freed from dependence and exploitation. It has the scatological hope for freedom and liberation. It takes the biblical image of the Christ as the liberator and conceives liberation as both spiritual in terms of after life and takes the historical and the temporal as th e arena where Christians must struggle for liberation.It is for a radical break within unjust social order and realizations of salvation as qualitative and not merely a quantitative dimension of life. This model provides a strong motive and power to the struggle of the oppressed. 3. Qualitative Utilitarianism Though Beneath formulated the universalistic pleasure theory, later universalistic and utilitarianism found this theory failing to meet certain difficulties. One of the foremost proponents of the qualitative latter utilitarianism was John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873), whose father was a friend and follower of J Beneath.John Stuart Mill almost agreed with Beneath concerning the central formula of Utilitarianism. But the major difference is that Beneath took quantitative approach to happiness whereas Mill argues that the quality of the happiness should be our primary concern. According to John S Mill the quality of happiness should be the major concern in our ethics of discou rses. Social points how John S Mill explains his theory; 04. 07. 12 I) Empiricism It talks about experience from field research. Mill is from classical theory. He talks about experience as source of all ideas. When he talks about empiricism, he talks about inductive approach.Inductive means particular to general and deductive is general to particular. A study begins with particular to general. It needs a field study. He says experience should lead to general uniformity about the right action. ‘I) On Mill would talk about the freedom of an individual. Complete liberty should be given to individual provided that their action should not cause any harm to anyone. He also tastes that there is a relationship between ethics, individual freedom and democracy. In other words Mill says that we are cultural moral beings only when we act for the benefit of the whole humanity.For that kind of act compulsion should not be there and should be out from free will. C. Contextual Ethics l. Conte xtual ethics of Paul Lehman Contextual ethicists say that they are not comfortable with the approach of deontological and teleological approach. They say we need to look at the circumstances of moral action. Contextual ethicists say that deontological ethics will not be appropriate in different contexts. Contextual ethics talks about moral judgment of an action should be fitting to the context. The place of context or circumstances of moral action is important in relation to moral Principles and rules.Roman Catholics use the word moral theology whereas contextual theology is applicable and popular among Protestants. Contextual ethicists emphasize the moral context as most critical element in the determination. In other words it stresses the importance of concrete setting of human behavior. There are many contextual ethics from western context and Indian context. Contextual ethicists look at the circumstances of the moral action. For e. G. , observing Sabbath strictly. Contextual eth ics is very popular among the Christian tradition. Article: â€Å"contextual ethics† found in the Dictionary of the Christian ethics deeds.Manchuria. Among contextual ethics Paul Lehman is one of the contemporary theologian and philosopher. He is one of the most important proponents of contextual ethics. In Paul Lineman's contextual ethics the focus is shifted from larger goals to actual context. When we look at Paul Lineman's ethics in Christian context, he provides an articulation of his change in focus and actually applying the contemporary context. He is actually speaking the anthropometry focus where all norms are challenged. Traditions are losing its ground in the midst of that we see the emergence of different possibilities for human life. 9. 07. 12 Kayoing Ethics At this point he talks about contextual ethics which is known as kayoing ethics and also known as community ethics. In the kayoing ethics, he insists upon the importance of context in which Ethical insights a nd practices are nourished or how moral developments take place. Secondly, Canonic ethics is concerned with relations and functions in the society and Thirdly for Lehman, Okinawa ethics is oaken as a starting point for ethical reflection. In other words contextual critique is contextual ethics of absolution.An action should be speaking to the context According to the Paul Lehman kayoing ethics is introduced by Jesus Christ himself. In the Okinawa ethics, Christian ethics is starting point of all ethics. Contextual ethics is critique of all ethics. Kayoing ethics is concerned with relation and functions in community not only on Christian principles. The ethical question in the kayoing ethics is not what ought I do but â€Å"what am I to do†? Ought to factor to cannot be ethical realty. The primarily ethical realty is the human factor, the human indicative in every situation involving the interrelationship and the decisions of man.The humans are the indicators of what is happen ing. In the kayoing ethics Paul Lehman clearly sees God's activity in the world and he says that God is acting in the world to keep human life and that through the participation in the kayoing. Human life can be called human when they participate in the community. Community with only human life can be called humbugging. His kayoing ethics is a humbugging ethics which enables people to grow in the Christian maturity and be agents of the immunization in the world. Therefore its aim is consistency between these factors within specific context rather than uniformity of acts in all contexts.In summary it is sensitivity to human ethics. Summary So far we have seen three model of ethics; Deontological ethics, Teleological ethics, Contextual ethics. Contextual ethics is divided into three; Contextual Situation Responsibility- Relationally Ethics Paul Lehman Joseph Fletcher Richard Nibbler II. Situation ethics It became popular in 1960 through the effort of Joseph Fletcher. Through his book situation ethics, he developed this approach at the background of Paul Lineman's antenatal ethics with some dissatisfaction. He says Lehman looks at contextual ethics in liberal term and looks at particular situation not general context.According to Joseph Fletcher an action should be fitting to the situation or circumstances. The situations rejects the idea that there are timeless rules which are never to be violated and the idea that there is a group which is objectively given in the nature of things. In other words the situations takes seriously the concrete character of moral life and holds that human conduct is to be evaluated in relation to specific situation rather than universally binding laws. The situations recognizes the love commandment as the only absolute moral principle and examines each situation carefully to determine what love requires then and there. 0. 7. 12 Situation etches of Joseph Fletcher In this approach he is not doing with all the demonology ethics. The p rinciple, Joseph Fletcher talks about is Love, the obedient love. He says that there is only one universal principle that is love which enables us to take right decisions. He says that agape love is the summary commandment, to love God and the neighbor. To him situation ethics is not a system or a program of living according to principle, but it is n effort to relate love to a world of relativities through obedient love. According to him the only one law or principle that is binding is Love.The principle which is always good and right is Love. He says situation ethics is not a system or a program of living according to principle. His effort was to relate love to a world of relativities through obedient love. Ethics of obedience of commandment is love. His six propositions of theory of situation ethics agape love or obedient love 1. Love one thing only is always good: The first preposition â€Å"only one thing is principally good, namely love nothing else at all†. By this stat ement he means that Love is a principle a formal principle expressing what type of real actions.Christians alone is always good and right in every situation. It is the only universal principle, because whatever is loves in any particular situation is good. Joseph Fletcher quotes Richard Nibbler â€Å"God nowhere commands love for its own sake because love is for the sake of people and it is not good in itself†. 2. Love is the only norm or love is the only principle: â€Å"The ruling norm of Christian decisions is â€Å"love† nothing else†. He explains that situation ethics reduces the law from a legal system of rules to the love anon alone. He gives the example of Jesus and Paul replaces the principle of Torah with the living principle of agape 3.Love and Justice are the same for Justice. For justice Love is distributed nothing else. In other words Fletcher says that Love does not only care but is careful. He also says that it is diligent in serving the neighbor . He also says that prudence and love are not Just partners but they are one and same. Love is to seek neighbor's welfare and Justice is being fair as between neighbors. From here we understand that Justice is Christian love using reasons by calculating TTS duties, obligations, opportunities, resources and Justice is also love coping with situations. 4.Love is not liking. â€Å"Love wills the neighbor's good whether we like him or not†. According to Fletcher Love is discerning and critical but not sentimental. In other words in the situation ethics the neighbor is anybody. It is an ethics in which justice is impartial an inclusive. Justice and love is one and the same thing. Justice is as personal as love and love is as social as Justice. Therefore agape seeks the good of anybody and everybody because it seeks the will of neighbor's good whether we like IM or not. 5 Love Justifies means: Only the end Justifies the means nothing else.According to Joseph Fletcher unless some pu rpose or end in view to Justify any action, we take it is literally meaningless. Every action without exception is haphazard (Incomplete), if it is without an end to serve and ends in turn needs means. 11. 7. 12 6 Love decides then and there: This proposition, love decisions are made situational not prescriptively. According to Fletcher for real decision making freedom is required which is an open ended approach to situation. Close ended approach did not have NY option. Therefore situation ethicists always suspect prescriptive laws.They say that according to the love, decisions are made situational not prescriptively. In other words the decision making is always depends on the case is question. Situation ethics are critical about principles of deontological ethics especially about their laws. Ill. Relationally – Responsibility Ethics 13. 07. 12 Responsibility means what we ought to do. When given a responsibility we are accountable. How responsibility relationally model of et hics came in to being or how it came as a median? It involves two notions. They are; 1 .Accountability, Obligation and 2. How we are accountable to God. Hunter P Mamba coined it what Richard Nibbler have already said. According to Mamba, here comes a median that will bridge two extremes. One extreme talk about duties that talk about deontological model of ethics and other extreme is the end. Accountability looks back to some deed done and obligation looks forward to moral demands that need to be met in relationships. Responsibility therefore has to do with relationships, deeds and accountability is being answerable for ones' action or

Hertage Assesment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hertage Assesment - Essay Example There is frequently a conflict concerning patients’ practices and those understood to be suitable by the health care providing society because attitudes vary amongst ethnic groups. It is imperative that the healthcare provide knows: Possess the information of cultural ingestion patterns and family traditions such as core foods, fasting and traditional celebrations. Be able to know limits of own abilities and cultural competencies How own cultural background and experiences and attitudes, biases, values influence nutrition therapy. Have shifted from a position of cultural awareness to a position of being sensitive and aware in relation to cultural heritage. The aspect of respecting and valuing respecting differences is also inclusive. Understand food selection, preparation, and storage with a cultural context. Familiarize him/her with relevant research and latest findings concerning food practices and nutrition-related health troubles of a variety of and racial groups. Heritage Assessment Tool Cultural heritage plays a big part in the economic, health and social promotion of the person. The use of heritage evaluation tools helps healthcare providers assess and look at someone’s tradition, as well as customary health methods used to keep health, protect health, and re-establish health; by putting in use these ideas, it helps healthcare professionals cope with a person’s mental, spiritual beliefs and physical. Different cultures have special values and beliefs of health, disease, birth, illness, and; assessing these cultural competencies is vital in order to offer a holistic approach. Heritage assessment tools helps both the health provider and patient by opening a passageway for an efficient communication of one’s values, beliefs, in regards to, illness, health, spiritual values as well as family support. Why there is a need for Cultural and Heritage Assessment The United States is home for diverse culture. Culture is defined as  "the learned, shared, and transmitted values, lifestyle, beliefs, norms, and practices of a particular group that guide, decisions, opinion and actions in patterned way†. Heritage assessment is a great tool to know about one’s own beliefs and health traditions. Nurses have to understand their own cultural practices in order to relate to others. There is high-quality proof that health professionals do not, by design, boast the skills and attitudes essential to be successful in culturally varied healthcare environments. This study therefore examines the connection by investigating how cutting edge staff and patients in great urban hospitals identify issues of healthcare workforce and patient diversity. As a community practitioner, one should be aware that specific conditions develop at critical times in family development and it is their understanding of the culture influencing the community that will solve these problems in a fast and efficient manner. Among the importan t challenges nutritionists and dietitians come across at present and in the near future are the increased emphasis on client/patient behavioral changes in relation to evidence of effectiveness: and the more and more diverse population of this country. Sensitivity to cultural differences in us and in those of different cultural backgrounds is a significant feature of competence in the attainment of a diverse population. Nutrition counselors are at the moment and will be tested on their capability to create desirable behavioral changes in patients/clients. Language barriers also contribute to the complexity of the cultural

International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

International Law - Essay Example Treaty law essentially entails the same binding nature as custom, and is only distinguished from custom because it is more formal than the former.2 However, treaties are generally written law and as such is a more certain source of international law.3 Although some international law scholar refer to treaties and customary international law interchangeably, there is a clear distinction since customary international law is bereft of written law and treaties are identified with written instruments. For example, Article 2(a) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1974 proves that: ‘treaty’ means an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular designation.4 In this regard there are two types of treaties under international law that represent important sources of international law. The first kind of treaties i s law-making treaties that establish rules that are universally and generally applicable. The second kind of treaties at international law are â€Å"treaty-contracts† which are concluded between two or more states and cover specific issues relative to the contracting states.5 Law-making treaties are direct sources of international law, while contract-treaties merely outline treaty obligations between the contracting states and thus circumvent the need to identify and apply customary international law, unless the treaty requires the application of customary international law.6 Since the mid-19th century there has been an unprecedented proliferation of law-making treaties which have come to be known as â€Å"international legislation†.7 The proliferation of international law-making treaties was responses to the inefficiency of international customary law in meeting the immediate needs of the international community for the regulation of mutual interests. The immediate ne eds of the international community arose out of developments at the economic and industrial levels which were increasingly tightening the interconnectedness of states. Thus relationships between states became more complicated and diverse.8 Law-making treaties can be viable alternatives to customary laws because as history informs, law-making treaties typically serve to main functions. First they may articulate crystalized rules of international law, thus making customary law more visible and essentially codifying customary law into an identifiable source of law. Secondly, law-making treaties may identify new issues and formulate new rules of international law designed to respond to new issues or to change current practices by states.9 For instance, UN Law of the Sea Treaty 1982 establishes new rules relative to jurisdictional parameters applicable to the seas.10 The UN Law of the Sea Treaty 1982 also codifies some customary rules of international law. However, the 1982 Treaty also p rovides new provision such as the creation of the International Sealed Authority for controlling the distribution of marine resources. Moreover, transit passages were established for replacing the concept of innocent passage via coastal states’ territories. Thus states ratifying the 1982 Treaty would necessarily be bound by new international laws relative to the distribution of marine life and transit passages.11 Thus law-making treati

The Loyalty Card as a Promotional Tool to Improve Customer Essay

The Loyalty Card as a Promotional Tool to Improve Customer Satisfaction - Essay Example From this discussion   it is clear that loyalty cards are the prominent loyalty cards used in maintaining customers to attain maximum profits. The aim is to provide customers with shopping loyalty cards that accumulate points on every shopping visit. Accumulation of the points aids the customer at a future date to redeem the points by purchasing products from the store without using liquid cash. Customers also get access to special discounts as long as they have the card.Consumers are spending less on non-essential items. The use of loyalty cards to secure and retain customers is a scheme used by many individuals to attain profits. The project aims to analyze and evaluate the impacts of the current financial crisis on consumer buying behavior. Tesco as a store gets a huge number of clients on a daily basis. It is important for them to seek interest on the impact of loyalty cards on customer satisfaction and retention. With the loyalty cards program, Tesco ensures that they purchase non-essential items with the use of the loyalty cards with the hopes of securing a sale in future. As the study outlines Tesco is a company with a large customer clientele hence retaining the customers remains a big challenge for them to achieve. The main objective of using loyalty cards is to offer a clear analysis by offering existing customers the cards. Every customer who purchases a certain amount of products is provided with a card that will be used to obtain points. The objective is to have all clients in the database enabled for use of the reward scheme. The research will ensure proper usage of resources to attain the maximum number of clients. As the research analysis continues collecting information on how clients view the study comes in as an important aspect. Tesco is an international chain of stores. The company sells products ideas to customers willing to experience first customer service.  

Berlin Airlift 1948-49 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Berlin Airlift 1948-49 - Essay Example The provisions of the said agreement stipulated the division of Germany into four zones, allotted for each country, in accordance with the principles agreed upon in the Yalta Conference in 1945. In the same way, this set the division of Berlin into four zones as well (â€Å"Wikipedia†). However, the agreement had not provided for arrangements with regard to access to Berlin given that the city is within the Soviet zone (â€Å"Reader’s Companion to American History†). With this, the divergence of views on the status of Berlin soon emerged. The Soviet Union considered the presence of the other three Western nations only as a temporary occupation. As Joseph Stalin claimed, in economic and administrative terms, the whole of Berlin belonged to the Soviet-occupied zone of Germany. On the other hand, the Western Powers asserted that the citizens of Berlin had the right to choose and determine the future. (Elkins) The rift was further aggravated given the difference in Soviet Union’s and Western nation’s viewpoints regarding the economic recovery plan for Germany. The former believed that Germany should be incapacitated to launch another war since Stalin assumed that Germany along with Japan could once again be perils to Soviet Union by 1960s. On the contrary, the Western Powers, particularly the US, stressed that the post war reconstruction of Europe primarily depends on the rebuilding of German economy and industry. (â€Å"Wikipedia†) In line with the Western recovery plan, the unification of the Western-occupied sectors in Germany, dubbed as the Marshall Plan, was announced on March 6, 1948. The three Western zones would be consolidated with an independent federal government (â€Å"Wikipedia†). In this regard, the Soviet Union withdrew from the Allied Control Council administering over Berlin due to the perceived violation of the Potsdam Agreement by the Western Powers (â€Å"Reader’s Companion to American History†).

About my major and me Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

About my major and me - Essay Example Fortunately, mathematics graduates have numerous career choices that are useful in excising practical skills learnt in the disciplines. Being a mathematician has always been my long-term aspiration. The Northern Colorado University, particularly the mathematics department, has a wonderful and equally professional preparation for mathematics undergraduates (Holton 120). The experience in the school will be significant in the realization of my dream. My goals include integration of math in the society to improve the quality of life. First, I would love to be a general mathematician to offer consultation services. My services should include assistance in data analytics for researchers, tutoring of junior math students and assisted budgeting for mid-sized businesses. Such services are very vital in Dubai during a time of economic down turn. In addition to the achievement of my goals, I would commit myself to motivating others in pursuing a major study in mathematics as well. As a tutor, I would love to integrate math in other disciplines such as physics and health

Lab 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lab 5 - Essay Example However, when the value of frequency was upped to 100, as in image 5, the amplitude of spectrum obtained was more distantly spaced when compared to those previous images with frequencies 5 and 50. Overall, the experiment proves differences/ changes in wavelength when frequencies are altered. In addition, the experiment Fourier offers better insight regarding waves. The images highlighted above are those of frequency wavelength cycles of 20.5, 60 and 100 that are found in the direction of X. Proportional to the frequency value/ strength applied the 2 dots found on the right portion of the images are variously spaced. This is seen the three images 7, 8 and 9 where images 8 and 9 which have superior frequencies exhibit greater spacing between the two dots that image 7 that has frequency 20.5. Image 9 has the greatest spacing therefore, as is clearly seen. This test demonstrates that waves are not found in the direction of Y but are situated along the X direction. The images shown have two spikes divided by the Fourier transform and the image and are exhibited as two different frequencies. As observed in image 10, there exist spikes frequencies which are low at 5.5. In image 11, spikes are of high frequency, at 30.5 with two waves above 0. The first of these waves above 0 is parallel to the low waves of frequency at 5.5 and the second one also parallel but to the waves of frequencies that are high at 30.5. Moreover, the spikes on the positive section resemble mirror images of those on the negative part as observed in the images 11, 13, 15. Image 13 and 12 additionally depict the same outcome as above when their values of N1 is 5.5 and that of N2 is 70.5. This implies simply that more brightness is obtained with increase in frequency. Contrarily, image 14 and image 15 with N1 being 20 and N2 at 22 do not result in frequencies that are good as the waves move and stop repeatedly (as observable in the images). To counteract this

Chief Bill Bratton Leadership Essay Example for Free

Chief Bill Bratton Leadership Essay When one thinks of a leader, what type of person do we think of? Is that individual a hero that we see on television, a cartoon character, a family member, or is that person a public servant? Regardless of occupation and title, a leader is a person who inspires others and they know how to motivate people. â€Å"When they arrive, you see something about them that stands out. The inner strength of their leadership ability emerges†. (Gonzalez, 2007, February 1). Leaders are individuals in your area of work who are focused on the tasks at hand and they have a clear and concise vision on what their respective organizations are set out to do. How do you know if you are being an effective leader? A leader is a person who is looked up to and has a plan to get things accomplished. Within groups, a leader is the person who makes the final decision for the group and it is a person who is motivated to see success for their organization. â€Å"A leader is on a quest and you can see it†. (Gonzalez, 2007, February 1). In the area of law enforcement, Bob Vernon states that there are six questions that every law enforcement officer leader should ask to see if they are being effective leaders. Vernon states that each law enforcement leader should look in the mirror and ask themselves if their organization has the following: a.) Direction, b.) Teamwork, c.) Staff development, d.) Principles, values, and policies, e.) Communication, and f.) controls (Vernon 60-62). Few officers were more of a leader than William Joseph â€Å"Bill† Bratton was. Bratton was born on October 6, 1947 in Dorchester, Massachusetts which is a suburb of Boston. He attended Boston Technical High School and graduated in 1965. Bratton went on to serve in the military and he served in the Vietnam War during the 1960’s. Bratton began his police career with the Boston Police Department in 1970. Within ten years he rose to the rank of Superintendent. During Bratton’s police career he held the position of Superintendent with three of the largest police agencies in the world. Bratton served with the Boston Police Department from 1991-1993, the New York City Police Department from 1994-1996, and lastly with the Los Angeles Police Department from 2002-2009. During Bratton’s tenure with the New York Police Department, the work he did resulted in dramatic change in the level of crime in the city. For example, murder rates dropped from 2,500 per year to just less than 1,000 per year. Shootings fell from 6,000 to 3,000 a year and robberies from 85,000 to approximately 50,000 per year. (Blair, 2002, September, 23).

Hamlets Characterisation Essay Example for Free

Hamlets Characterisation Essay The aspect of Shakespeare’s Hamlet that is most interesting to me is the playwright’s intimate depiction of Hamlet’s daily struggle againt the world. Through soliloquies and characterisation, we see that Hamlet’s world is a cold, political one, unreceptive to his grief, and this fundamental incompatibility is ultimately what creates and drives the play’s great drama behind his struggle, his murderous plot, uncertainty, and finally his thoughtful, accepting resolve at the end of the play. Early in the play we see this great incompatibility between Hamlet and his society emerging, as he, stricken with grief, is surrounded by cold political plotters. Shakespeare revels in his use of irony, as Claudius utters the oxymoron â€Å"lawful espials†, and Polonius, evangelising that â€Å"this above all else: to thine own self be true†, endeavours with â€Å"this bait of falsehood† to â€Å"by indirections find directions out† and thus â€Å"take this carp of truth†. Hamlet continues this tradition of fish-related metaphors in accusing Polonius of being a â€Å"fishmonger†, a claim which reflects his own struggle to comprehend how cold and contriving his society is. Hamlet even wonders how â€Å"a beast that wants discourse of reason would have mourned longer† than his mother, Gertrude, the â€Å"pernicious woman† whose â€Å"salt of most unrighteous tears† falls from merely â€Å"galled eyes†. That she could be â€Å"like Niobe† is a twisted classical allusion which adds to the sentiment of tension which Hamlet feels against his society, which, in the disillusioned wake of his grief, he has found is superficial and immoral, especially as â€Å"one may smile, and smile, and be a villain†, while â€Å"virtue itself of vice must beg† and â€Å"rank corruption†¦mining within†¦infects unseen†. Thus this great tension forms an integral part of the early part of the play and drives the drama which underlies Hamlet’s characterisation, and his struggle to find where he belongs in this morally void society. Hamlet’s soililoquy at the end of Act II reveals how this tension has acted upon his soul. He questions his own sanity, asking if it is, in fact, the â€Å"pleasing shape† of the devil, which â€Å"abuses me to damn me†. This particular tension between Hamlet and his world is what reveals several important character elements in Hamlet. That the Player could invoke such passion in such a superficial â€Å"fiction†, and â€Å"for Hecuba† at that, while Hamlet sits statically racked with indecision, is reflective of the superficiality which frustrates him and drives him to see imself as a â€Å"dull and muddy-mettled rascal†. It drives him inwards to consider what kind of person he is, and how best to resolve the tension which has evolved as a result of his society’s immorality. Yet as the soliloquy changes tone dramatically, and marked by Hamlet’s cry of â€Å"Oh, vengeance! †, the apostrophic appeal to Nemesis herself reve als an early attempt to break free from these chains of indecision and uncertainty set upon him due to his struggle. Thus the tension between him and his immoral peers is what ultimately produces this first change of heart, from â€Å"pigeon-livered† to the successful invocation of the mythical figure, the â€Å"rugged Pyrrhus†, out to â€Å"drink hot blood†, whom he struggled to portray and rehearse earlier in the scene. That the tension is so central to this first episode of self-realisation, and subsequent ascents to personal conviction, reflects how truly crucial his struggle and journey towards self-understanding is to Hamlet’s textual integrity. Hamlet’s obsession with death, beginning with the Act III soliloquy not long after, is another seeming affliction brought on by this grievous tension with the world around our hero. That the world could so easily forget a human life, and that this life was that of a king, brings on a deep sense of aporia for the young prince, as he struggles to reconcile the significance of life with the great ease with which it is forgotten when lost. His turn to â€Å"what dreams may come when we have shuffled off this mortal coil† forms part of the plaintive introspection revealed by this soliloquy as he searches for truth, away from the â€Å"pangs of disprized love† for which he was informed that â€Å"to persever in obstinate condolement is†¦unmanly grief†. His obsession with death throughout the play and in this soliloquy is hence marked as a decided escape from the constant tension with his society and its many unknowable uncertainties, as portrayed by a play whose opening line is â€Å"who’s there! †. Death plays the role of the only certain, pure truth, as symbolised by the memento mori of Act V, the skull held in Hamlet’s hand which in all its graspable physicality and feeble perishability becomes a source of finality, and certainty for the young prince. His tension with society is characterised by great inaction and uncertain angst, but in death, all souls return to absolute dust. Whether they bear the â€Å"pate of a politician† or the â€Å"skull of a lawyer† is insignificant in this regard, for â€Å"e’en so†, even the great Alexander â€Å"looked o’ this fashion i’th’earth†. He finds great solace in the promise of this finality away from the contrarious moods of his â€Å"comrades†. This characterises the self-reckoning which ultimately leads him to his final resolvel and faith by which he stands ready to once more face his society and his fate, whatever it may be. With this sentiment he remarks â€Å"there is Providence in the fall of a sparrow†¦let be†. Lastly, Hamlet and Ophelia’s relationship with the world reveal analogous tensions which manifest in different ways and provide interesting insights into the dramatic consequences of this tension. Ophelia and Hamlet’s relationship is torn apart by Polonius’ meddling. Hamlet’s proclamation that â€Å"frailty, thy name is woman! † foreshadows the way that we soon see Ophelia being influenced to a great extent by her filial, obedient devotion to Polonius, so much so that, struggling to reconcile her personal integrity and her duty to her family, she descends into her own madness, â€Å"divided from herself and her fair judgment, without the which we are pictures, or mere beasts†. Polonius, the â€Å"fishmonger†, tells her that her love is that of â€Å"a green girl†, and her submission to such worldly expectations is what begets her destruction. Yet even in her insanity she finds a resolve which, though markedly more frenzied, mirrors Hamlet’s own. Her flowers are each symbols of denouncement of the court’s treacherous figures, whose â€Å"rue with a difference† Ophelia insists they must acknowledge for their most distressing actions. There is thus a great tension which arises out of the persistent degradation of the lovers’ relationship, and their final destruction at the hands of Laertes for Hamlet, and in the river for Ophelia. These elements are undeniably integral elements of the play which drive its enduring drama and converge to form a crucial part of Hamlet’s textual integrity. Thus we can see that the tension of the world, manipulative, cold and immoral, as it acts on the fundamentally honest, if perhaps naive prince, is the source of the great drama which underpins Hamlet’s struggle through the play to pit his own psyche against that of his peers. This tension time and time again proves to be central to a true consideration and understanding of Hamlet’s episodes of character evolution which sees him descend into the murky depths of his world’s uncertainty. It is only with the realisation and grasping of truth, whether he finds this in the finality of death or the power of fate, that Hamlet ascends once more to the safe anchorage of sanity and resolve, and finds the courage and conviction needed to face his society once more, and finally his death.

Impact of the Aztec Mathematical System

Impact of the Aztec Mathematical System How the Aztec Mathematical System Came to be and Contributed to us Today by Destiny Harrison, Delaney Garcia, Jaysiya Norman, Jewel Samson, Raquel Cruz, Katelyn Woodley, Kalyna Mai and Olivia Nixon For the competition, we were tasked with studying Aztec mathematics. Aztec mathematics was one of the most complicated mathematical writings of any of the pre-Columbian people. Aztecs used hand, heart and arrow symbols to represent their numbers. The researchers put immense effort into studying Aztec agricultural manuscripts trying to understand how the genius-seeming people arrived at area calculations. [1] Only when they factored in the important and well-used glyphs did the figures make sense. The term Aztec comes from the ethnic groups that were both politically and socially dominant in Mexico during the 1330s through the early 1500s. Geographer Barbara Williams of the University of Wisconsin and math genius Maria del Carmen Jorge Y Jorge of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico studied long and hard over two documents that described the farming properties owned and controlled by citizens in the city of Tepetlaoxtoc for about four years in the 1540s[2]. There are only a few records written in the pre-Mexico period that includes perimeter and area data; shown by Dr. Jorges studies. Most of the documents from this time were lost. The researchers tried to copy the area predictions and originally had issues. When the Aztecs realized that the arrow, hand, and head drawings showed ground distances they were finally were able to come up with some predictions. [3]The system they use to record the areas is confusing, even for modern mathematical geniuses, according to what Dr. Jorge told LiveScience during an interview. She was very excited to see that actually using the symbols made it easier to discover the areas. Each symbol stood for a distance that was less than the standard area unit called a land rod. These arrow, heart and hand symbols were similar to what we now call fractions, according to the studies Dr. Jorge conveyed. [4] They called them units of measure, smaller than the length unit. [5]The Aztecs had their own forms of calculation. The Aztecs used a base-20 number system, and labeled the ones with dots and 20s with bars. Aztec math has more numbers than we do now or at least symbols labelling numerical theories. The land holding documents were written for the use of tax. The type of the mathematics the Aztec used to calculate land holdings was made to be constant with the calendar mathematics which are well known for. The ability to make calculations while using proportions was spread across cultures at the time (Moskowitz[6]). Usually a finger was used to show the number. Going by the dots, one would be represented as one dot;   Ã‚   1 = à ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ § And so forth with the number system; 2 = à ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ § 3 = à ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ § The Aztecs were dominant citizens in Mexico for several hundred years. The Aztecs used a number system that had been around for a long time. It is a vigesimal system as the apposed to our decimal system. The Aztecs used a dot number system. They left behind their comprehensive math writings, and fascinating scholars until this day. The Aztecs had a intelligent idea of what zero was and there is no proof that they had a symbol representing it. The lines and dots look very simple but was actually very complicated. The Aztecs were one of few groups to completely measure out many things in life. The Codex Vergara, from 1540, has representable drawings and altitude of individual fields. Previous study has showed the fact that they had knowledge of multiplication and division and they even had some information about geometry. The mathematics that the Aztecs used was highly based upon earlier versions of Egyptian mathematics; mirroring their use of images as numbers. The images had no order and could be written in any way to still represent the same singular number, just as the Egyptian symbols. The Aztecs used body parts to measure. For example, if you stretched out your left the measure from your heart to the tip of your finger would be one singular measure (much like our current foot, inch, and mile). The system is puzzling, used to record area and perimeter during architecture and other building methods. Still, the measurement system was complex for its time period. Aztecs recorded only the total area. Dr. Williams has analyzed the Codex Vergara (which is what they called the Aztec math). Aztecs used several types of algorithms to calculate areas. Some involved simply multiplying length by width. The Aztecs came up with many different ideas such as multiplying the average of two different sides by an adjacent side. When a measurement did not match an exact number of land rods they used their standard unit of normal measurement, which went to about 2.5. The Aztecs also used mathematics for astronomy. Although most of their information in math astronomy was lost there is a pretty good synthesis of the remaining information in the book Skywatchers by Anthony Aveni. For example the Aztecs used their system to find out that the cycle of Venus is 584 days. The Aztecs even did the math to workout out the eclipse season although they didnt know the shape of the earth or the size.They had found out when the eclipse would happen but they were not total for sure the eclipse would be the total eclipse. They would use the number system to keep track of natural disasters As of what we know the Aztecs are the only early Americans to leave technical documents. Aztecs like to get their measurements right, definitely when it came to taxation. The Aztecs documents were very organized and detailed. The Codex Vergara was created in about 1540, and it involved schematic drawings and the exact measurements of individual fields. It has been revealed that an understanding of multiplication and division,principles of geometry was needed. Although the Aztecs are only early Americans that have these kinds of documents, its reasonable to consider that other groups such as the complex Mayans used similar systems. There is an observation that the Aztecs were living off their religion and that their science and facts were all guided by it. Studies have shown that the Aztecs probably liked to get their measurements right and definitely when it comes to tax. Previous studies have shown that they had the ability of doing multiplication, division and even had some laws of geometry. Aztec math is very valuable because it was one of the first mathematical systems that was made. It was also an ancient tax time. Aztec math is very intriguing; its different unlike a lot of math people do today. The Aztec mathematics helped make the calendar and help make a writing system that uses hieroglyphics. The Aztec civilization blossomed after the come down of the Toltecs around the 11th century AD. By the year 1325 they had found the city of Tenochtitlan in the valley of Mexico and became one of the strongest military groups. The Aztec empire as it was known, was very powerful, lead several other groups, grand taxes, taking sacrifice prisoners and gripping their achievements. A diamond represents 10, a flag represents 20, feathers represent the hundreds, a bag of cacao beans represents 8,000. The Aztec empire was a collection of small states that were controlled by chiefs. Their alliance with the neighboring city states of Tetzcoco and Tlacopan made them so powerful that they came to control most of what is now called Mexico. The Aztec king claimed to be born from the line of the gods and ruled through a council of nobles and officials. Noble males served in the military, in government, and in priesthood. The lower classes worked as slaves and commoners; this category was most of the Aztec people. The Aztec recorded the area of shapes once they found the area. Aztec people were very intelligent, they worked hard to get their math where it is today. Astronomy is the intelligence of planets and stars. The Aztecs developed an elaborate calendar that reflected the cosmic cycles of their religion, called the Sun Calendar. The Aztecs were very smart and intelligent thinkers as well. The Aztec education was valued in their culture. At this time the math they had came up with was more advanced than the other systems. The Aztecs were not just good at math but was also good at science; that helped them with making some of their choices. Their math relied on their science sometimes. Today we use math for so many different reasons like to buy what we want or need but one of the reasons why the Aztecs made their math system was so when they built anything they would have the measurements right and also for taxes. The Aztec Empire was known to be very powerful and dominated several other cultures , applying taxes, taking sacrifice prisoners, and taking in their advancements. This is how they were influenced by the Mayans, not directly but by the Toltecs who had gotten that knowledge years before, in comparison to their math and their calendars. Even though there is no precise Aztec math, it is believed that the Aztecs were taught a Mayan-based math, using the same view and symbols, so it turned out the same way. It was also used in the marketplace for the trading of goods, but more significantly it was implemented by astronomers in the important search of the skies and space, through the calendars. The Aztecs were very religious and led themselves through offerings, human and animal sacrifices to the gods; the Aztec stone was a sacrificial stone made sometime in the 1470s in the temple of the war god Huitzilopochtli, but the stone also represented the Aztec cosmos. There were people charged with the responsibility of studying the cosmos, like the priests who were the astronomers as well. It was obvious that these people needed to posses a strong mathematical knowledge in order to take control and study the skies, and interpret the calendar, so we can see that math was an integral part of the future priests education. The calendars created by the Aztecs were made up of a combination of the earlier calendars and Aztecs general religious beliefs. The Aztecs believed that each and every era of the world was labelled by the end of the 52nd year or life cycle, and that post that either a new era was about to begin or the end of the world was drawing nearer. Every era was marked by a unique process, like ÃÆ' the Era of the Earth Sun, the Age of Great Winds, the Age of Fire, the Age of Floods, and the present one the Age of Earthquakes. These were the five Suns, all of which are shown in the Aztec calendar: the current one in the center and all other four, with their date of ending, surrounding the fifth sun, which is symbolized as an Aztec god (one of the Aztec gods), probably the sun god. The stone didnt commemorate the start of the fifth sun but the destruction of it by earthquakes. The Aztecs believed that in order to keep the gods happy they had to supply them with fresh human hearts, to keep on living. With the Aztec calendars, the Aztecs were able to track important dates with their calendars, as well as use them to study and investigate space and the Earth. They used the calendars to track when they could study the constellations and stars best (see them best). They were good at their knowledge in astronomy and mathematics they used to help them; their system could be compared to the Egyptian system (as mentioned), but also the Hindus and Babylonians. Our opinion on the Aztec culture is immense; we think very highly of them and their mathematical skills. We think that the mathematics is helpful to our modern world today. They contributed to our society by helping develop our own, modern mathematics. Without the Aztecs mathematics, we may never have had developed our own. We might not have started using decimals, zeros as placeholders, time, money, or even numbers in general! We think that Aztec mathematics is very helpful to us. We use Aztec mathematics today in school, teaching, and our jobs. Our future careers may depend on mathematics that directly root from the Aztec developments. Delaney thinks it is interesting to her because the developments of Aztec mathematics helps you with math equations today. On the contrary, Jaysiya thinks it is very useful because it helps us in the 21st century (career, historian, and etc wise). Raquel thinks it is entertaining because it started long ago and it helps us even modernly. Olivia thinks that it is very creative because of the many different symbols used in the system. Kalyna thinks that the Aztec mathematics were a great development in mathematics for the time period it was used in because of the complex equations and calculations. Katelyn thinks that Aztec math is very interesting to learn about, she would love to learn more about it. Destiny says that she thinks it is an interesting topic to learn and that she thinks that it could have been a difficult system to come up with. Overall, our conclusion to this essay follows; How did Aztec mathematics affect us today? Without the contributions of the knowledge passed on through Aztec culture, we might never have developed our modern mathematics that led to great inventions such as the car, keys, TVs, the internet and computers, and so many more commonly used household items that we depend on in the 21st century. How did the Aztec mathematics develop? The Aztecs used a complex complication of developing forward previous systems; the Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Mayan dot-and-bar-system, and so forth. But they developed so much on their own, including but not limited to calendars, decimals, and even the late development of zeros as place holders. Works Cited Andrei, Mihai. Science ABCs How Aztecs did the Math. http://www.zmescience.com, 9 Apr. 2008, www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/science-abc-how-aztecs-did-the-math/ Holden, Constance. How Aztecs did the Math. http://www.sciencemag.org, 3 Apr. 2008 Leon, Araceli. Math Use During Maya and Aztec Civilizations. http://www.hermetic.ch, www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/maya/mathuse.htm Moskowitz, Clara. Amazing Aztecs were Math Whizzes Too. www.livescience.com, 2 Apr. 2008, www.livescience.com/2427-amazing-aztecs-math-whizzes.html Siddiqui, Ajaz. Aztec Number System. www.math.temple.edu, 8 Feb. 2004, www.math.temple.edu/~zit/Native%20American/9%20Aztecs_num.pdf [1]Sources? I know its tedious, but its worth it. [2]Makes it sound like Maria and Barbara worked on the documents in 1540. I know what you meant, but you might want to clarify. they studied two documents from the 1540s for 4 years. or something along those lines. [3]cite source please. [4]Not sure conveyed is the right term for this sentence. [5]They called what units of measure? A bit unclear. You guys are doing well. I see the hard work. You got this. Keep it up. [6]In text citations are (last name, page #).

Mercutio of William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet Essay -- Shakespear

Mercutio of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet Although the story of Romeo and Juliet does not focus on Mercutio, to many, he is one of the most interesting characters in literature. His name puns on the word mercurial which meansunpredictably changeable. His unsteady behavior makes him wise beyond his intentions. Arecurring trend in Shakespeare’s plays is the existence of a witty fool and many foolish wits. People such as Romeo, Friar Laurence, and Capulet are people who are made out to be wise, but,in the end, they make all the wrong decisions. Mercutio serves as a foil to all these characters. He is considered by every character in the play to be a fool, but, in the long run, he is the one whois the wisest. He brings a sense of comic relief as well as a reality check to many of the character’s inthe play. Although he can be seen as a laughable youth, his character serves to show how manyof the so-called wiser characters are actually fools. The audience is first introduced to Mercutio in Act one, Scene two . Romeo speaks of having a dream and believing it to be true. This leads Mercutio to his famous Queen Mab speech. When he breaks down after his speech, Romeo states, â€Å"Thou Talk’st of nothing (I.iv. 96).† Mercutio responds with his first wise quote, â€Å"True, I talk of dreams, Which are the children of anidle brain (I.iv. 97-98).† This comment does not refer to Romeo’s dream of love alone. Friar Laurence’s dream of peace in Verona proves false. In Act two, Scene four ,when the nurseappears in her gaudy attire acting as if she is the owner of the Capulet’s servant Peter, it isMercutio that churlishly reminds her that she is of the servant class as well. Mercutio’s commentprovides an alternative view of real... ... again, according to Mercutio, there is no such thing as fortune. There is the outcome of one’s actions. Romeo is unknowingly calling himself a fool for his own careless judgment. Shakespeare is loved for his story lines, but he is respected for the characters he has created. It is ironic how in Romeo and Juliet characters such as Capulet, Romeo, and Friar Laurence are made out to be wise but in actuality make bad judgment. It is also ironic that Mercutio is depicted as a childish youth when really he is the character with the most insight. Shakespeare uses Mercutio’s insight as a contrast to every other character to show how ridiculous the other characters actually are. If you pay attention to the plots and story lines, this play is a love story. If you understand Mercutio’s purpose, then this play is one of the greatest satires on human emotions ever made.

Beta Pictoris: Planets? Life? Or What? :: essays research papers fc

BETA PICTORIS: PLANETS? LIFE? OR WHAT? JARA ASTRONOMY 102 SEC 013 The ultimate question is; Is there a possibility that life might exist on a planet in the Beta Pictoris system? First, one must ask, Are there planets in the Beta Pictoris system?. However, that question would be impossible to answer if one did not answer the most basic questions first; Where do planets come from? and do the key elements and situations, needed to form planets, exist in the Beta Pictoris system?. To understand where planets come from, one has to first look at where the planets in our solar system came from. Does or did our star, the sun, have a circumstellar disk around it? the answer is believed to be yes. Scientists believe that a newly formed star is immediately surrounded by a relatively dense cloud of gas and dust. In 1965, A. Poveda stated, â€Å"That new stars are likely to be obscured by this envelope of gas and dust (1).† In 1967, Davidson and Harwit agreed with Poveda and then termed this occurrence, the â€Å" cocoon nebula† (1). Other authors have referred to this occurrence as, a â€Å" placental nebula† (1), noting that it sustains the growth of planetary bodies. For a long time, even before there was the term cocoon nebula, planetary scientists knew that a cocoon nebula had surrounded the sun, long ago, in order for our solar system to form and take on their currents motions (1). In 1755, a German, named Immanuel Kant, reasoned that â€Å"gravity would make circumsolar cloud contract and that rotation would flatten it (1)." Thus, the cloud would assume the general shape of a rotating disk, explaining the fact that the planets, in our solar system, revolve in a disk-shaped distribution. This idea, about the disk-shaped nebula that was formed around the early sun, came to be known as the nebula hypothesis (1). Then, in 1796, a French mathematician named Laplace, proposed that the rotating disk continued to cool and contract, forming planetary bodies (1). Also, when investigating the evolution of stars, it was proposed â€Å"that a star forms as a central condensation in an extended nebula... The outer part remains behind as the cocoon nebula (1)† . During the same study it was also indicated that under various conditions such as: rotation, turbulence, etc. the nucleus of the forming star may divide into two or more bodies orbiting each other (1). This may be the explanation as to why more than half of all star systems are binary or multiple, rather than singles stars, like ours, the sun. This same fragmentation may also form bodies too small to become stars.

Chapter 18 Moony, Wormtail, Padfoot, and Prongs

It took a few seconds for the absurdity of this statement to sink in. Then Ron voiced what Harry was thinking. â€Å"You're both mental.† â€Å"Ridiculous!† said Hermione faintly. â€Å"Peter Pettigrew's dead!† said Harry. â€Å"He killed him twelve years ago!† He pointed at Black, whose face twitched convulsively. â€Å"I meant to,† he growled, his yellow teeth bared, â€Å"but little Peter got the better of me†¦not this time, though!† And Crookshanks was thrown to the floor as Black lunged at Scabbers; Ron yelled with pain as Black's weight fell on his broken leg. â€Å"Sirius, NO!† Lupin yelled, launching himself forwards and dragging Black away from Ron again, â€Å"WAIT! You can't do it just like that — they need to understand — we've got to explain –â€Å" â€Å"We can explain afterwards!† snarled Black, trying to throw Lupin off. One hand was still clawing the air as it tried to reach Scabbers, who was squealing like a piglet, scratching Ron's face and neck as he tried to escape. â€Å"They've — got — a — right — to — know — everything!† Lupin panted, still trying to restrain Black. â€Å"Ron's kept him as a pet! There are parts of it even I don't understand, and Harry — you owe Harry the truth, Sirius!† Black stopped struggling, though his hollowed eyes were still fixed on Scabbers, who was clamped tightly under Ron's bitten, scratched, and bleeding hands. â€Å"All right, then,† Black said, without taking his eyes off the rat. â€Å"Tell them whatever you like. But make it quick, Remus. I want to commit the murder I was imprisoned for†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"You're nutters, both of you,† said Ron shakily, looking round at Harry and Hermione for support. â€Å"I've had enough of this. I'm off.† He tried to heave himself up on his good leg, but Lupin raised his wand again, pointing it at Scabbers. â€Å"You're going to hear me out, Ron,† he said quietly. â€Å"Just keep a tight hold on Peter while you listen.† â€Å"HE'S NOT PETER, HE'S SCABBERS!† Ron yelled, trying to force the rat back into his front pocket, but Scabbers was fighting too hard; Ron swayed and overbalanced, and Harry caught him am pushed him back down to the bed. Then, ignoring Black, Harry turned to Lupin. â€Å"There were witnesses who saw Pettigrew die,† he said. â€Å"A whole street full of them†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"They didn't see what they thought they saw!† said Black savagely, still watching Scabbers struggling in Ron's hands. â€Å"Everyone thought Sirius killed Peter,† said Lupin, nodding. â€Å"I believed it myself — until I saw the map tonight. Because the Marauder's map never lies†¦Peter's alive. Ron's holding him, Harry.† Harry looked down at Ron, and as their eyes met, they agreed, silently: Black and Lupin were both out of their minds. Their story made no sense whatsoever. How could Scabbers be Peter Pettigrew? Azkaban must have unhinged Black after all — but why was Lupin playing along with him? Then Hermione spoke, in a trembling, would-be calm sort of voice, as though trying to will Professor Lupin to talk sensibly. â€Å"But Professor Lupin†¦Scabbers can't be Pettigrew†¦it just can't be true, you know it can't†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Why can't it be true?† Lupin said calmly, as though they were in class, and Hermione had simply spotted a problem in an experiment with Grindylows. â€Å"Because†¦ because people would know if Peter Pettigrew had been an Animagus. We did Animagi in class with Professor McGonagall. And I looked them up when I did my homework — the Ministry of Magic keeps tabs on witches and wizards who can become animals; there's a register showing what animal they become, and their markings and things†¦and I went and looked Professor McGonagall up on the register, and there have been only seven Animagi this century, and Pettigrew's name wasn't on the list.† Harry had barely had time to marvel inwardly at the effort Hermione put into her homework, when Lupin started to laugh. â€Å"Right again, Hermione!† he said. â€Å"But the Ministry never knew that here used to be three unregistered Animagi running around Hogwarts.† â€Å"If you're going to tell them the story, get a move on, Remus,† said Black, who was still watching Scabbers's every desperate move. â€Å"I've waited twelve years, I'm not going to wait much longer.† â€Å"All right†¦but you'll need to help me, Sirius,† said Lupin, â€Å"I only know how it began†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Lupin broke off. There had been a loud creak behind him. The bedroom door had opened of its own accord. All five of them stared at it. Then Lupin strode toward it and looked out into the landing. â€Å"No one there†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"This place is haunted!† said Ron. â€Å"It's not,' said Lupin, still looking at the door in a puzzled way. â€Å"The Shrieking Shack was never haunted†¦The screams and howls the villagers used to hear were made by me.† He pushed his graying hair out of his eyes, thought for a moment then said, â€Å"That's where all of this starts — with my becoming a werewolf, None of this could have happened if I hadn't been bitter†¦and if I hadn't been so foolhardy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He looked sober and tired. Ron started to interrupt, but Hermione, said, â€Å"Shh!† She was watching Lupin very intently. â€Å"I as a very small boy when I received the bite. My parents tried everything, but in those days there was no cure. The potion that Professor Snape has been making for me is a very recent discovery. It makes me safe, you see. As long as I take it in the week, preceding the full moon, I keep my mind when I transform†¦I'm able to curl up in my office, a harmless wolf, and wait for the moon to wane again. â€Å"Before the Wolfsbane Potion was discovered, however, I became a fully fledged monster once a month. It seemed impossible that I would be able to come to Hogwarts. Other parents weren't likely to want their children exposed to me. â€Å"But then Dumbledore became Headmaster, and he was sympathetic. He said that as long as we took certain precautions, there was no reason I shouldn't come to school†¦.† Lupin sighed, and looked directly at Harry. â€Å"I told you, months ago, that the Whomping Willow was planted the year I came to Hogwarts. The truth is that it was planted because I came to Hogwarts. This house† — Lupin looked miserably around the room, — â€Å"the tunnel that leads to it — they were built for my use. Once a month, I was smuggled out of the castle, into this place, to transform. The tree was placed at the tunnel mouth to stop anyone coming across me while I was dangerous.† Harry couldn't see where this story was going, but he was listening raptly all the same. The only sound apart from Lupin's voice was Scabbers's frightened squeaking. â€Å"My transformations in those days were — were terrible. It is very painful to turn into a werewolf. I was separated from humans to bite, so I bit and scratched myself instead. The villagers heard the noise and the screaming and thought they were hearing particularly violent spirits. Dumbledore encouraged the rumor†¦Even now, when the house has been silent for years, the villagers don't dare approach it†¦.† â€Å"But apart from my transformations, I was happier than I had ever been in my life. For the first time ever, I had friends, three great friends. Sirius Black†¦Peter Pettigrew†¦and, of course, your father, Harry — James Potter.† â€Å"Now, my three friends could hardly fail to notice that I disappeared once a month. I made up all sorts of stories. I told them my mother was ill, and that I had to go home to see her†¦I was terrified they would desert me the moment they found out what I was. But of course, they, like you, Hermione, worked out the truth†¦.† â€Å"And they didn't desert me at all. Instead, they did something for me that would make my transformations not only bearable, but the best times of my life. They became Animagi.† â€Å"My dad too?† said Harry, astounded. â€Å"Yes, indeed,† said Lupin. â€Å"It took them the best part of three years to work out how to do it. Your father and Sirius here were the cleverest students in the school, and lucky they were, because the Animagus transformation can go horribly wrong — one reason the Ministry keeps a close watch on those attempting to do it. Peter needed all the help he could get from James and Sirius. Finally, in our fifth year, they managed it. They could each turn into a different animal at will.† â€Å"But how did that help you?† said Hermione, sounding puzzled. â€Å"They couldn't keep me company as humans, so they kept me company as animals,† said Lupin. â€Å"A werewolf is only a danger to people. They sneaked out of the castle every month under James's Invisibility Cloak. They transformed†¦Peter, as the smallest, could slip beneath the Willow's attacking branches and touch the knot that freezes it. They would then slip down the tunnel and join me. Under their influence, I became less dangerous. My body was still wolfish, but my mind seemed to become less so while I was with them.† â€Å"Hurry up, Remus,† snarled Black, who was still watching Scabbers with a horrible sort of hunger on his face. â€Å"I'm getting there, Sirius, I'm getting there†¦well, highly exciting possibilities were open to us now that we could all transform. Soon we were leaving the Shrieking Shack and roaming the school grounds and the village by night. Sirius and James transformed into such large animals, they were able to keep a werewolf in check. I doubt whether any Hogwarts students ever found out more about the Hogwarts grounds and Hogsmeade than we did†¦ And that's how we came to write the Marauder's Map, and sign it with our nicknames. Sirius is Padfoot. Peter is Wormtail. James was Prongs.† â€Å"What sort of animal –?† Harry began, but Hermione cut him off. â€Å"That was still really dangerous! Running around in the dark with a werewolf! What if you'd given the others the slip, and bitten somebody?† â€Å"A thought that still haunts me,† said Lupin heavily. â€Å"And there were near misses, many of them. We laughed about them afterwards. We were young, thoughtless — carried away with our own cleverness.† â€Å"I sometimes felt guilty about betraying Dumbledore's trust, of course†¦he had admitted me to Hogwarts when no other headmaster would have done so, and he had no idea I was breaking the rules he had set down for my own and others' safety. He never knew I had led three fellow students into becoming Animagi illegally. But I always managed to forget my guilty feelings every time we sat down to plan our next month's adventure. And I haven't changed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Lupin's face had hardened, and there was self-disgust in his voice. â€Å"All this year, I have been battling with myself, wondering whether I should tell Dumbledore that Sirius was an Animagus. But I didn't do it. Why? Because I was too cowardly. It would have meant admitting that I'd betrayed his trust while I was at school, admitting that I'd led others along with me†¦and Dumbledore's trust has meant everything to me. He let me into Hogwarts as a boy, and he gave me a job when I have been shunned all my adult life, unable to find paid work because of what I am. And so I convinced myself that Sirius was getting into the school using dark arts he learned from Voldemort, that being an Animagus had nothing to do with it†¦so, in a way, Snape's been right about me all along.† â€Å"Snape?† said Black harshly, taking his eyes off Scabbers; for the first time in minutes and looking up at Lupin. â€Å"What's Snape got to do with it?† â€Å"He's here, Sirius,† said Lupin heavily. â€Å"He's teaching here as well.† He looked up at Harry, Ron, and Hermione. â€Å"Professor Snape was at school with us. He fought very hard against my appointment to the Defense Against the Dark Arts job. He has been telling Dumbledore all year that I am not to be trusted. He has his reasons†¦you see, Sirius here played a trick on him which nearly killed him, a trick which involved me –â€Å" Black made a derisive noise. â€Å"It served him right,† he sneered. â€Å"Sneaking around, trying to find out what we were up to†¦hoping he could get us expelled†¦.† â€Å"Severus was very interested in where I went every month.† Lupin told Harry, Ron, and Hermione. â€Å"We were in the same year, you know, and we — er — didn't like each other very much. He especially disliked James. Jealous, I think, of James's talent on the Quidditch field†¦anyway Snape had seen me crossing the grounds with Madam Pomfrey one evening as she led me toward the Whomping Willow to transform. Sirius thought it would be — er — amusing, to tell Snape all he had to do was prod the knot on the tree trunk with a long stick, and he'd be able to get in after me. Well, of course, Snape tried it — if he'd got as far as this house, he'd have met a fully grown werewolf — but your father, who'd heard what Sirius had done, went after Snape and pulled him back, at great risk to his life†¦Snape glimpsed me, though, at the end of the tunnel. He was forbidden by Dumbledore to tell anybody, but from that time on he knew what I was†¦.† â€Å"So that's why Snape doesn't like you,† said Harry slowly, â€Å"because he thought you were in on the joke?† â€Å"That's right,† sneered a cold voice from the wall behind Lupin. Severus Snape was pulling off the Invisibility Cloak, his wand pointing directly at Lupin.